The School of Marine and Environment Affairs (SMEA) is dedicated to studying coastal zone issues and management as part of its interdisciplinary curriculum. Professor Marc Hershman founded the Coastal Management Journal, which is housed in SMEA, and is the namesake for the Hershman Fellowship. This fellowship has given students, many of which are SMEA alumni, an opportunity to work directly on coastal zone policy in Washington State. In my own time as an SMEA student, I have taken courses related to ocean and coastal zone issues, ecology, and policy, inspiring an interest in how these areas are managed, specifically through the passage of the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA). Unlike other policies that hold power at the federal level, the CZMA is unique in that it gives regulatory authority to the states, enabling them to respond to a range of specific concerns.

To examine the diversity of coastal zone management programs implemented in response to the CZMA, this article reviews the basic structure and management successes of programs in Washington State, California, Florida, and American Samoa. These four states and territories represent different coastal ecosystems, geographies, and communities that are able to best meet their needs through individualized programs.

The Coastal Zone Management Act

The CZMA was passed as part of an environmental policy push in the 1970s. During this time, American politicians made the connection between healthy environments and a healthy economy. Coastal areas, for example, provide people with food, energy, recreation, and navigable waters, making them important for both a basic standard of living and global market competitiveness. This realization led to the passage of a slew of environmental legislation: the Clean Air Act, the Endangered Species Act, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and, of course, the Coastal Zone Management Act. The majority of these monumental environmental laws hold power at the federal level, creating country-wide standards and regulations. The CZMA, however, gives coastal  management authority to the states in recognition of their diverse interests and issues.

“The majority of these monumental environmental laws hold power at the federal level, creating country-wide standards and regulations. The CZMA, however, gives coastal  management authority to the states in recognition of their diverse interests and issues.”

Coastlines around the country experience different environmental concerns depending on their geographic composition, location, and culture. The American coastline extends 95,471 miles, covering diverse ecosystems shaped by rocky coastlines, mangrove swamps, tropical sand beaches, and calving glaciers. Coastal managers, therefore, experience a range of issues and concerns: sea level rise, sand dune protection, stormwater runoff, wetland restoration, and coastal access to name a few. Each context and system requires tailored policy approaches. 

Passed in 1972, the CZMA calls for “the effective management, beneficial use, protection, and development” of the country’s coastal zone. Understanding the wide and varying concerns of coastal areas around the country, the CZMA disseminates regulatory authority to the state level. Participating states develop individualized coastal management programs, demonstrating how they will meet the goals of “use, protection, and development,” while also catering to their community needs. 

Once a state’s program gains federal approval, the state is eligible for federal grants. Grant categories include administrative, coastal resource improvements, protecting coastal waters, and coastal zone enhancement and management, and are allocated based on the state’s shoreline length and coastal population density. States also benefit from the consistency clause, which gives them review authority in the decision-making process for federal projects that could impact the state’s coastal zone.

With the exception of Alaska, all 35 coastal and Great Lakes states and territories have coastal zone programs. They vary in form and function, demonstrating how the devolution of power to the states allows for tailored local solutions, while still meeting national goals. 

Washington State

Washington’s coastal area is defined as the 15 counties that border the Pacific Ocean and Puget Sound. This area supports tourism, shellfish, rocky shores, international ports, dense forests, coastal fishing towns, and bustling cities. Two-thirds of the population and 70% of wildlife in Washington are reliant on the coast. Of particular importance, salmon, which are cultural and economic keystones to the state, depend on a healthy coastal region.

In 1976, Washington became the first state to receive approval for its Coastal Zone Management Program. Its pre-existing Shoreline Management Act meshed well with the goals of the CZMA, enabling Washington to rely on an existing framework to address coastal management instead of developing a new piece of legislature. The Department of Ecology was identified as the lead implementing agency, tasked with maintaining and improving shoreline quality while allowing commercial and recreational use. The resulting management program consists of two parts: 1) laws that dictate activity in Washington’s coastal zone (the Shoreline Management Act, the State Environmental Policy Act, the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act, the Ocean Resources Management Act, and the Energy Facilities Site Location Act), and 2) the duties of the Department of Ecology (some of which are performed by SMEA alumni) to meet the requirements of the CZMA. 

Washington has received $1.5 to $2.9 million annually in federal coastal zone grants since the management program was approved, and this money is funneled towards projects supporting coastal planning and development, ocean resources, and, of particular importance, restoring wetlands. A key success was the complete eradication of invasive cordgrass in Padilla Bay in 2015. The removal of this nonnative species was a monumental success, restoring this area which is an important habitat for oysters. By restoring wetlands, Washington protects the many ecosystem services they provide, including improved water quality, decreased flood risk, economic opportunity, and wildlife habitat. 

California

California is known for its beautiful coastline: the redwood forests in the North, the rocky cliffs of Big Sur, and the sandy beaches in the South. Kelp forests, wetlands, rocky reefs, and deep-sea canyons provide productive habitats for an array of marine mammals, birds, sharks, and fish, and plenty of economic and recreational opportunities for California’s coastal population of 26.3 million.

California’s coastal management plan was approved by NOAA in 1978. Unlike Washington State, California’s coastal program is administered by three agencies: the California Coastal Commission (Commission), the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission (BCDC), and the California State Coastal Conservancy (Conservancy). All three prioritize using federal grants to mitigate the effects of climate change, restore habitats, and manage sediment load. While the Commission and the BCDC are primarily concerned with development in their respective regions, the Conservancy “purchases, protects, restores, and enhances coastal resources and provides access to the shore.” 

The primary authority is the California Coastal Act, which prioritizes equitable public access to the sea. For example, thousands utilize the California Coastal Trail daily, which is currently 60% complete and will eventually span the 1,250 mile coastline. Providing equitable access along the entire coast, federal grant money has been used to purchase beach wheelchairs, ensure compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act in coastal parks, and offer free experiences to marginalized communities through programs such as Explore the Coast.

Florida

Defined by white sand beaches, barrier reefs, mangrove swamps, sand dunes, and big cities, Florida’s coastline includes land that borders the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. This area supports 15 million people, representing nearly 80% of the state’s population, as well as abundant sea life such as manatees, turtles, corals, dolphins, sharks, whales, birds, alligators, and crocodiles. 

Florida’s coastal management program was approved by NOAA in 1981. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection was appointed as the lead agency, supported by a “network of nine state agencies and five water management districts [who] together enforce 23 separate statutes.” With a mean elevation of 100 feet and a high point of 354 feet, the entirety of this low-lying state is defined as the coastal zone. Counties are divided into two tiers and, “…only coastal cities and counties that include or are contiguous to state water bodies are eligible to receive coastal management funds.” 

Due to its low elevations, the state is experiencing impacts of climate change such as sea level rise and greater frequency and intensity of storms. Florida experienced 13 billion-dollar disasters between 2010 and 2018. Therefore, much of the state’s coastal program is focused on adapting to climate change, funding projects related to stormwater management, strategic planning, and shoreline enhancement. One such project funded a 5th grade class in their endeavors to plant a living shoreline in the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve. After Hurricane Michael devastated the area in 2018, the patch of marsh grass planted by these students remained virtually untouched. This project demonstrated the diverse benefits of living shorelines, “bolstering the local habitat and ocean economy.”

American Samoa

American Samoa is a small Pacific Island in the heart of the area defined as Polynesia. By a cession deed in 1900, it became the only American territory south of the equator. Despite being a US territory, American Samoa has remained relatively isolated from foreign influence and adopted its own constitution in 1967.

American Samoa’s 126 miles of coastlines include lush habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, and rainforests. Largely fueled by the tuna industry, 40% of the territory’s total employment is in the coastal zone. Its coastal zone program, led by the American Samoa Department of Commerce was approved by NOAA in 1980, under the primary authority of the American Samoa Coastal Management Act. Areas of focus include protecting coral reefs and managing resources for commercial and subsistence harvest.

American Samoa’s coastal management program is especially unique because it is the only state or territory that incorporates both western and traditional knowledge and systems of management. American Samoa has a “rich cultural history that is strongly connected to the land and water.” Maintaining “fa’a Samoa,” or the Samoan way, decisions are organized at the community level. American Samoa’s community-based methods of management yield high compliance rates and results. For example, when facing issues that impact coral reefs, such as runoff, the community has rallied to find and implement solutions. Rain gardens have been planted to filter runoff, wastewater pipes have been diverted, and fertilizer use has decreased. Despite the challenges that these coral reefs have faced, community-based coastal management in American Samoa has enabled them to bounce back.

Conclusion

Funded by federal grants provided by the CZMA, Washington has restored wetlands, California has ensured public access, Florida has made moves to adapt to rising sea levels, and American Samoa has protected its coral reefs. These, among many other successful coastal zone management projects and strategies, exemplify the diversity of issues states are managing across the country. An act implemented on the federal level may not have been able to adequately address the range of concerns experienced by coastal areas and communities. The CZMA gives coastal and Great Lake states and territories the support and flexibility to address local issues in these important and delicate ecosystems.